Now that this eclipse is behind us, we are thankful that we didn’t end up like Guillaume Le Gentil, and we are naturally looking to the next eclipses. The next American eclipse is in 2045.
Ohio’s Schools are preparing for the eclipse.
The post-industrial house will solve the following domestic problems and maximize the following healthy ways of living.
origin =
main =
master =
remote =
Head =
Headless mode =
Modified =
Staged =
Committed =
Start the ssh agent:
eval $(ssh-agent)
To generate an SSH key:
ssh-keygen
To add the SSH key to the SSH client for use:
ssh-add id_ed25519_github
Git can be a little intimidating at first because it has the power to change the files you are working on, so it’s good to start with commands that don’t do anything to get a feel for the situation before you actually do something.
git config --list
Shows useful information about the current repository. Shows the remote.origin.url variable for example.
git config --get remote.origin.url
Shows just the url associated with local git repository.
git config --list --show-origin
Shows ___.
git status
Probably the most common git command.
git diff
To see changes since the last commit. Or
git diff > gitdiff.txt
for a text file of the information.
ls -al ~/.ssh
To check for SSH keys (on Linux only I think).
git log --oneline
Is useful to see all the commits in a row with their commit messages. Or
git log --oneline --decorate --graph --all
for more detailed information.
git log -p filename.py > log.txt
Makes a file with the entire change history of filename. The -p is patch text. This is great for resurrecting “lost portions” of code and replaced the file I used to keep: “unused code.txt”
git branch -v -a
Lists all the branches including remotes, with the current branch highlighted in green plus an asterisk.
git branch --show-current
Shows just the current branch.
git tag -n1
Says to list all the tags and show 1 line of annotation per tag. Default is 0 lines of annotation.
git ls-tree -r trunk --name-only
Notice above command to check for existing keys.
The first step is establishing an SSH key on the machine to be connected to GitHub then copy the public key to GitHub. This is a pretty good description of how to do that. Notice Git bash in Linux is just the command line of a Linux machine with Git installed while on Windows you have to open the Git bash executable for a Git-specific terminal.
& 'C:\Program Files\Git\bin\sh.exe' --login
to open the Git command line.
git clone git@github.com:rr34/Astro.git
Notice the format of the remote url determines SSH versus https transfer. The above format is for SSH, which is required to commit changes because password identification was disabled for committing changes.
To initialize, navigate to the directory where your code is stored, and:
git init
to initialize git tracking of the directory.
git add
to add files. You can add one at a time to be selective or
? how to add all the files in the directory, then ignore?
This is a pretty good list here, but it lacks informational commands.
git commit -a -m 'commit message here'
git push
Are the daily “save your work” commands.
git mv old-filename.extension new-filename.extension
To rename a file, use git to rename it instead of renaming it manually. This allows git to track the rename instead of appearing to be “delete and add new.”
git rm filename
To delete a file, use git to allow git to track the deletion. Don’t do it manually or it just shows up missing.
git checkout <commit ID> filename
There are various ways to do this (restore and revert maybe?) but I did it once like this and it worked. You have to be OK with losing any work in that file since the last commit. The point is it doesn’t affect the other files.
git branch <new-branch-name>
To create a new branch.
git switch <new-branch-name>
To switch to a different branch (same as the still-valid git checkout <new-branch-name>)
git checkout -b new-branch-name
To create a new local branch and switch to it in one command.
git push --set-upstream origin new-branch-name
? is that right, not just push?
How to create a branch on GitHub here.
git tag -a v1.0.0 ec595fb -m 'message here'
then
git push origin v1.0.0
to tag a past commit. Version naming convention is [Major].[Minor].[Patch]
To merge, create a pull request on GitHub, then compare and merge. It’s pretty self-explanatory, THEN to update your local repository:
git fetch
because you made changes to the GitHub version, but not your local version, so the changes have to be fetched (opposite of push I think?)
git switch main
to switch to the main branch, and you should see a message saying the local main is behind origin/main, then
git pull
to pull the commits into the local branch. Merge complete.
git remote -v
lists the remote repositories.
git remote set-url origin git@github.com:rr34/Astro.git
allows you to change the remote url for the origin.
The following are features in GitHub only, not classic command line Git:
Had I really not published this post before? Here is my speculation on what will cause the (next) apocalypse / collapse of civilization. In order of likelihood:
Why ask this question, you ask? Apocalypse is a surprisingly entertaining subject for us. I ask, why are we all interested in it?
*COVID has brought disease to our attention but the COVID response has mostly highlighted our unprecedented inability to actually do something. Lose weight? Strengthen ourselves in the face of disease? None of that. This could be a wake-up call to get healthy.
To login to a linux machine remotely:
ssh username@ipaddress
To see the version of Linux running:
cat /etc/os-release
printenv lists all environment variables
Print working directory:
pwd
Get IP address:
ifconfig or ifconfig | grep inet
See what ports are open:
netstat
List all users:
less /etc/passwd
List groups a user belongs to:
groups username or id username
List groups with their members:
getent group or getent group | grep searchsomething
To get the status, including rules being enforced, of the uncomplicated firewall:
sudo ufw status
To list all processes currently running;
ps aux | grep searchsomething
To find a particular file or directory from among all files:
sudo find / -name "searchsomething"
or for directory name search only:
sudo find / -type d -name "searchsomething"
To search for specific text within the files within the current directory:
grep -nr 'searchsomething*'
$VARIABLE_NAME is a variableapt combines apt-get and apt-cache and it is newer. Use apt.sudo apt update && sudo apt upgrade -y
script savedcommands.txt.sh file is an executable shell script. # to comment within./ is used to specify the current working directory especially when running something that could be the same as a system command.$PATH, echo "${PATH//:/$'\n'}" or just echo $PATH$PATH for the current session, export PATH='/new/directory:$PATH'> sends command output to a file. >> appends the output to a file without overwriting existing contents.ls -al shows all files in directory including hiddenwhatis is a brief explanationman gives a manualless is like cat, but one page at a timePS C:\current\path>%VARIABLE_NAME% is a variablePS > winget search Microsoft.PowerShell
PS > winget install --id Microsoft.PowerShell --source winget
PS > Get-ExecutionPolicy -List
PS > Set-ExecutionPolicy -Scope Process RemoteSigned
Python is not natively-installed on Windows, unlike on Linux machines. This pretty much covers it: https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/windows/python/web-frameworks
PS > wsl --install
PS > wsl --list --verbose
PS > wsl
# code .
sudo apt install -y make build-essential libssl-dev zlib1g-dev libbz2-dev libreadline-dev libsqlite3-dev wget curl llvm libncurses5-dev libncursesw5-dev xz-utils tk-dev
To install dependencies.
What the following does: download source code, unpack it, make directory ~/.localpython to install into, run the configuration file setting install going to install folder, compile, install compilation, create a virtualenv pointing to the install, switch to the virtualenv to use it:
mkdir ~/src
cd ~/src
$ wget http://www.python.org/ftp/python/3.11.0/Python-3.11.0.tgz
$ tar -zxvf Python-3.11.0.tgz
$ cd Python-3.11.0
$ mkdir ~/localpython3110
$ ./configure --prefix=$HOME/localpython3110 --enable-optimizations
https://realpython.com/installing-python/#how-to-build-python-from-source-code
$ make &&make altinstall
sudo apt install software-properties-common -y
sudo add-apt-repository ppa:deadsnakes/ppa
sudo apt update
sudo apt install python3.xx
curl -sS https://bootstrap.pypa.io/get-pip.py | python3.13
$ ~/localpython3110/bin/python3.11 -m venv py3110_venv
$ source py3110_venv/bin/activate
$ sudo apt install python3-pip -y
$ pip install --upgrade pip
$ pip install tk pillow numpy astropy astroplan pandas pytz matplotlib scikit-learn
$ pip list
$ pip -V
$ which python
$ pip install --upgrade pip
$ pip freeze --local > requirements.txt
$ deactivate
$ rm -rf somename_env
$ pip install -r requirements.txt
Note the venv folder stores neither the Python installation nor your code for your project. It is only used to store version information about the Python installation used for your project.
pip download package1 package2 -d'~/src/python-packages'
pip install package1 package2 -f ~/src/python-packages --no-index
sudo apt install libapache2-mod-wsgi-py3
sudo a2enmod wsgi
Disable apache2:
sudo update-rc.d apache2 disable
sudo update-rc.d apache2 enable
sudo service apache2 restart
sudo service apache2 start
sudo service apache2 stop
sudo apt install exiv2
From virtual environment:
pip install tk numpy pandas astropy pillow matplotlib pyexiv2
pip install -U scikit-learn
(or pip install -r requirements.txt)
python -c 'import os, sys; print(os.path.dirname(sys.executable))'
to see the path to the current python installation.
PS > $env:path -split ';'
to see the path variable in Windows (readable format)
This is step-by-step how to install Astropy and Astroplan on a Raspberry Pi Zero W (1st gen, not the ‘2’).
Raspberry Pi OS download here along with imager here.
sudo passwd (change from default as desired for security)
sudo raspi-config
Set up location, time zone, language, keyboard, Wi-Fi, SSH. Turn off Bluetooth? How?
python --version
>> Python 3.9.2
sudo apt install python3-pip
sudo apt install python3-numpy
sudo apt install python3-astropy
Note! Astropy installs this one. Not the rc2 or any of the other ones.
sudo apt install python3-pyerfa (installs with Astropy – I think)
sudo apt install python3-pyyaml (installs with Astropy – I think)
sudo apt install python3-packaging (installs with Astropy – I think)
sudo apt install python3-astroplan
sudo apt install python3-pytz (installs with Astroplan)
sudo apt install python3-astroquery
sudo apt install python3-scipy
sudo apt install python3-kivy
sudo apt install fim
sudo apt install kivy
sudo apt install libmtdev1
sudo apt autoremove
The Raspberry Pi Zero W is 32-bit and uses ARMv6 instead of the newer ARMv7. The [biggest? only?] difference is in how the processor handles floating point operations.
The Raspberry Pi Zero 2 W is 64-bit.
The Raspberry Pi OS version 11 – the latest version still – is 32-bit. A 64-bit Raspberry Pi OS is in development but not available yet.
To check the version of Raspberry Pi OS installed, cat /etc/os-release.
Python comes already installed with the Raspberry Pi OS. To verify, type python --version. You could install if necessary with sudo apt install python3.8x.
sudo apt update is also a good command to run.
Pycharm is a the most popular Python editor.
NEVERMIND Develop on Windows, then put the program on the Raspberry Pi after. Or Develop directly on the Pi? Seems like develop on Windows is the best option.
The latest PyCharm is 64-bit and requires a 64-bit OS and 64-bit JDK.
The PyCharm install comes packed as a .tar and compressed as .gz, so .tar.gz. Decompress the file with gzip -d filename.tar.gz, then unpack it with tar -xvf filename.tar. This will create a directory of the same name as the .tar file.
Linux comes with both gzip and tar installed so the commands work right away.
Once unpacked, you can run PyCharm by navigating to the bin folder, in my case /etc/pycharm-community-2018.3/bin and type ./pycharm.sh. You need Java to run it, so …
https://mrchromebox.tech/#home
https://cloudbytes.dev/snippets/upgrade-python-to-latest-version-on-ubuntu-linux
On Ubuntu, to get latest python, sudo add-apt-repository ppa:deadsnakes/ppa, then sudo apt update && sudo apt upgrade -y. To see if a version is available, apt list | grep python3.10
Navigate to About Phone -> Build Number. Tap Build Number 7x for Developer Mode.
Under settings, there will be a new option called Developer Options. Within Developer Options, enable OEM unlocking.
Some useful apps for rooting and installing Linux are
https://www.python.org/downloads
Raspberry Pi OS and Python versions support and description here.
The command pip3 is made for Python 3, so use it, not just pip.
pip3 list, or python -c "import numpy; print(numpy.__version__)" to find the Numpy version installed.
sudo apt-get install libatlas-base-devpip3 install numpy --upgrade and it upgraded to Numpy 1.21.5Astroplan highly recommends to be installed using Conda rather than by manually installing Python and required packages.
Both Anaconda and Miniconda are Conda and Conda is a Python distro. Miniconda is Python plus data science tools. Anaconda is Minconda plus a GUI and more tools.
Do you have to remove existing Python to install Conda? No, you can leave Python installed. But for a legacy Miniconda install with the latest Python? May be an issue?
https://conda.io/projects/conda/en/latest/user-guide/install/linux.html
Legacy Miniconda downloads here. For the Raspberry Pi Zero W (1st gen, which is an ARMv6 processor), I found just one ARMv6 version from the long list of legacy Miniconda installs: Miniconda-3.5.5-Linux-armv6l.sh.
Miniconda 3.5.5 was released in Jun 2014.
For the conda command to work, an appropriate line has to be added to the .bashrc and .bash_profile files. The install does it automatically, BUT: I installed Miniconda into /etc/miniconda and in order to do this, I installed it as root user and because of that, the conda command only worked if I opened the terminal as the root. Of note, once I switched to root and back to pi in the terminal, the conda command still worked as pi. /home/username/.bashrc is for “non-login” shells. /home/username/.bash_profile is for “login” shells
Installation instructions: https://docs.astropy.org/en/stable/install.html
Astropy required Python packages.
Astropy installation files archive with various ISA support. Download the appropriate wheel file, then install with the command pip3 install /home/pi/file_name.whl.
Astropy comes with the full Anaconda install. With Miniconda, the recommended way to install Astropy is using the command conda install astropy.
Astropy 0.3.0 is what Miniconda 3.5.5 installs. This is a much earlier version than I would have expected. Astropy 0.3 was released in Nov 2013.
Astropy 0.4 was released in Jul 2014. Therefore Astropy 0.3 was the latest version when Miniconda 3.5.5 was released and is probably why Miniconda 3.5.5 installs with Astropy 0.3.
Astropy v1.2 requires Python v2.7 or later and Numpy 1.7.0 or later.
Astropy v1.3: “vectors and coordinates can be reshaped like arrays.”
Astropy v2.0.0 started to implement Python 3 but specifically says does not change functionality with Python 2. However, from 2.0.0 to 2.0.18, Python 2 was gradually phased out.
Astropy v3.0 is the first version that supports only Python 3.
I think I want Astropy v1.3 – unless it won’t run for some reason. Why does Miniconda 3.5.5 install Astropy 0.3.0? Was it the current Astropy at the release time? Answer: yes, it was. Do the newer Astropy versions require newer ISA? At some point, I got a “need ARMv7” error so probably.
However, also unexpectedly, it updates Python from 2.7.7 to 2.7.8. Python 2.7.8 was released in Jul 2014.
There are various types of servers, but they all consist of a physical computer somewhere. This tutorial shows how to set up a server first with the simplest of physical devices you can have in your home for less than $20 and side-by-side with how to do it in its more abstract – and more common – form, a VPS (virtual private server) you can rent from a hosting service.
The two procedures are very analogous. Seeing them side-by-side helps make concrete what you are actually doing even though sometimes you can’t physically see it.
Can be purchased many places, such as Microcenter or Amazon.
I purchased a VPS from Hostwinds. There are various operating systems available. I used Ubuntu 20.04.
I SSH login using the MobaXterm SSH Client. The server is usually a remote computer to which you do not have physical access, so instead of plugging in a keyboard, mouse and screen, you establish a connection that gives you access to the server’s command prompt. SSH stands for secure shell, meaning the data you transfer between your computer and the server are encrypted. SSH is enabled by default in Ubuntu, but not all Linux flavors.
Useful Linux Commands: https://vitux.com/40-most-used-ubuntu-commands/
Connect the Raspberry Pi Zero to your LAN. There is a way to do this with command line but the Raspberry Pi OS connects to WiFi on the initial startup, so just do it on initialization. If you want, to view the saved password with the command line to know generally where WiFi passwords are stored, use
sudo grep psk= /etc/wpa_supplicant/*
which searches the appropriate directory for “psk=” and you see the stored WiFi keys.
Enable SSH. SSH is not enabled by default with Raspberry Pi Zero. Many tutorials tell you to add a blank file to the /boot folder called SSH (no extension at all). Use the command touch ssh, then reboot. If you do this, notice once SSH is enabled then the file gets deleted so you will not see any change other than the SSH login should work.
Or enable SSH by: in the raspberry pi terminal window, enter sudo raspi-config, select Interfacing Options, SSH, enable it.
2. Ubuntu
Must install openssh-server. Use sudo apt install openssh-server. Check status after install with sudo systemctl status ssh.
Find the Raspberry Pi’s own IP address in the command line with ip add or ip addr or ifconfig. The IP will show after wlan0: inet __.__.__.__ Within a LAN, it is often something like 192.168.1.* Alternatively, you can type your router’s IP into your browser and view a list of connected devices. Or, use nmap, sudo apt install nmap and the command sudo nmap -sn 192.168.1.0/24 (without sudo you won’t see all the MAC addresses)
On a VPS, SSH is (should be) enabled by your host to allow the purchaser to access it. You will get a default username and password from the hosting service who established the VPS with its default settings.
In MobaXterm, “Remote host” is where you specify the IP address of your server, available in your Hostwinds account.
The username is “root”
The password is whatever you set in Hostwinds
At this point, you are using Linux. Either Raspberry Pi OS or Ubuntu are “flavors” of Linux. Having a list of basic commands is helpful:
sudo ufw allow OpenSSH
sudo ufw allow 22
sudo ufw allow 3306
sudo ufw default deny incoming
sudo ufw default allow outgoing
sudo ufw allow ssh
sudo ufw allow http or sudo ufw allow 80
sudo ufw allow https or sudo ufw allow 443
sudo ufw allow 'apache full'
sudo ufw show added
sudo ufw enable
This step appears complex and does not appear necessary especially this early in the process. Strictly speaking, it is indeed not necessary. You could skip this step and do everything as the root or default user that already exists. However, it is best to do this now because:
sudo adduser new_username
usermod -aG sudo new_username
Change the password for the current user as desired with:
passwd
Grant all privileges to the user with the command
sudo visudo
and add a line in the /etc/sudoers file below the root user line: new_username ALL=(ALL:ALL)ALL
This only allows the user to give itself privileges. The user does not have all read/write privileges like the root itself. Log in as the new user through SSH.
sudo apt update is the Debian update command (Raspberry Pi OS is based on Debian).
Update Ubuntu (only required if there is a new version of Ubuntu).*
*First, be sure you can login as the non-root super-user before updating Ubuntu as the new install will default to not allow root login. This means if you were planning to just use the existing root user with infinite powers you are now infinitely locked out of your own VPS and have to have your host re-initialize it. Your VPS host changed this setting when it set up your VPS so you can login but when you update the Ubuntu OS, the OS returns to the OS default which is to not allow SSH root login! This is a GREAT example of why to do the user basics as the very first step.
sudo do-release-upgrade
Update the advanced package tool:
sudo apt-get update
sudo apt update
L: Linux, already installed. I used 20.04.
A: Apache. The Apache2 default site appears immediately by typing server IP address in browser.
sudo apt install apache2 apache2-utils apache2-dev
P: php
sudo apt install php php-mysql
sudo reboot
php -v
You can test php functionality by making index.php file in the /html/ directory and visiting the file in a browser:
<?phpphpinfo();
M: MySQL. Mariadb forked from MySQL when Oracle bought MySQL, so I use MariaDB. The XAMPP controller that establishes localhost for developing uses MariaDB.
sudo apt install mariadb-server
sudo apt install libmariadb3 libmariadb-dev python3-dev
(I don’t think this was necessary) Enable mysqli in /etc/php/7.2/apache2/php.ini by removing comment ‘;’
extension=mysqli ; nate enabled this
also:
sudo phpenmod mysql
To login to MySQL from the Linux command prompt:
sudo mysql -u root or mysql -u username -p
From the MySQL command prompt, which is “MariaDB” – a version of MySQL, same thing, various self-explanatory commands:
MariaDB [(none)]> CREATE user 'new_username'@'localhost';
SELECT user, host, authentication_string FROM mysql.user;
DROP user 'new_username'@'localhost'
CREATE USER 'new_username'@'localhost' IDENTIFIED BY 'yourpassword';
CREATE database yourdatabasename;
GRANT SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE ON yourdatabasename.* TO 'new_username'@'localhost'; or GRANT ALL ...
SHOW GRANTS FOR new_username;
ALTER USER 'new_username'@'localhost' IDENTIFIED BY 'yournewpassword';
SHOW DATABASES;
USE yourdatabasename;
CREATE table
sudo nano /etc/mysql/mariadb.conf.d/50-server.cnf
and change the bind-address line to:
bind-address = 0.0.0.0
https://mariadb.com/resources/blog/how-to-connect-python-programs-to-mariadb
sudo apt install libmariadb3 libmariadb-dev
sudo apt install build-essential libssl-dev libffi-dev python3.13-dev
pip3 install mariadb
https://mariadb.com/resources/blog/how-to-connect-python-programs-to-mariadb
This sounds convoluted and it is when you are accustomed to dealing with desktop computers designed for convenience. Linux is designed for security.
Make a new group, sudo addgroup servermanager, and add the new user to the group, sudo adduser new_username servermanager, groups new_username
make the new group the owner of the required directories:
sudo chown -vR :servermanager /var/www/
sudo chown -vR :servermanager /etc/apache2/sites-available/
sudo chown -vR :servermanager /etc/apache2/sites-enabled
then modify the directory permission to be written by the owner group:
sudo chmod -vR g+w /var/www/ (add +x if you want to be able to develop in this directory)
sudo chmod -vR g+w /etc/apache2/sites-available
sudo chmod -vR g+w /etc/apache2/sites-enabled
Linux has a group and user structure to manage permissions and it is very useful to be able to view the current state:
List all users in the system:
cat /etc/passwd
List all groups on the system:
cat etc/group or less etc/group
or
getent group
for all members of a single group:
getent group group_name
check ownership of a directory, for example:
ls -ld /var/www/
check ownership of a file:
ls -l /var/www/
Find all the files owned by a particular user (may take some time):
sudo find / -user username
Change the active group for the session, possibly not:
newgrp servermanager
delete a group:
sudo groupdel group_name
delete a user (-r removes the user’s directory and mail spool):
sudo userdel -r username
search “linux octal permissions” to understand the numbering system.
Show all currently logged in users on a system:
w
With the commands above, you gave the non-root super-user sufficient permission to set up sites.
Upload any site directory to /var/www/html/your_site/
Go to /etc/apache2/sites-available/ and copy the default .conf file:
cp 000-default.conf your_site.conf
and modify with the following information:
ServerName your_site.com
ServerAlias www.your_site.com
ServerAdmin you@email.com
DocumentRoot /var/www/html/your_site
Use the following command to enable the site. What it actually does is copy the .conf file from /sites-available/ to /sites-enabled/:
sudo a2ensite your_site opposite is sudo a2dissite your_site
sudo systemctl reload apache2
to show some server information:
ps aux | grep apache2 | less
#q
to get out of this command.
Once the Pi server is serving a site on its IP within the LAN, making the site available outside the LAN (on the internet) is as simple as directing site requests that arrive to your internet IP to the Pi server. Sounds complicated, but when a browser looks for a website on the internet, it looks on port 80. Most routers have an option to direct all traffic arriving on a specific port to a specific IP within the LAN. Connect to your network’s router to configure it, usually by entering its IP (often 192.168.1.1) into a browser and logging in with a password you set. You should see an option like this under the advanced settings.
Normally, you generate a public and private key on your local computer then copy the public key to the server along with some settings. Hostwinds has an option in server management to generate the key, download the private key, and install the public key on the server. Reboot required.
On a fresh Debian VPN. Per WordPress.org’s own list:
sudo apt install apache2
sudo apt install php
sudo apt install php-curl
sudo apt install php-[the rest of the recommended extensions]
php -m to see a list of the php extensions installed.
sudo apt install mariadb-server
sudo systemctl start apache2
sudo systemctl start mariadb
sudo mysql_secure_installation
mysql -u root -p
sudo apt install httpd mariadb mariadb-server php php-common php-mysql php-gd php-xml php-mbstring php-mcrypt php-xmlrpc unzip wget -y
To make a backup file, sudo su root then navigate to root directory, and:
tar cvpzf backup.tgz --exclude=/proc --exclude=/lost+found --exclude=/backup.tgz --exclude=/mnt --exclude=/sys /
Download the resulting file.
To restore:
tar -xvpfz backup.tgz -C /
then, mkdir /proc, mkdir /lost+found, mkdir /mnt, mkdir /sys
reboot
sudo apt-get install libapache2-mod-wsgi-py3Put the files you have been using to dev in
/var/www/app_name
At its lowest level, software must execute code properly on the processor chip itself. Processor architecture is standardized to allow for code to be written and compiled that works across many individual models of chips. Some common architectures with examples are:
IA-32 is the 32-bit version of Intel’s x86 architecture.*
*Notice x86** does not by itself specify an architecture, it is a family of Intel architecture that includes everything from 16-bit released in 1978 to modern 64-bit.
**Note, the x86 Wikipedia article has a good explanation of which chips generally use which ISA.
Released by Intel in 2003, 64-bit began to replace 32-bit.
ARMv8-A is the first 64-bit version of the ARM architecture. ARMv8-A is AArch64, which is the same as ARM64.
ARM is a double-acronym. RISC stands for Reduced Instruction Set Computing. All together, ARM stands for “Advanced Reduced Instruction Set Computing Machine.” The ARM architecture in general is maintained by ARM Ltd. in Cambridge, UK.
Currently, Raspberry Pi does not offer a 64-bit OS, but a beta 64-bit OS is in work and already available for download from the official library.
In a Linux command terminal, you can see processor information including architecture with the command:
lscpu
From Windows PowerShell, you can see processor information including architecture with the command:
systeminfo
Get-WmiObject Win32_Processor
There is a certain a group of people who hates the daylight savings time change because it “arbitrarily disconnects us from nature.” One day we wake up and the sun is up. The next day we wake up at the “same time” and it is dark (or vice versa when we go off daylight savings time).
To my timekeeping-conscious friends out there, we have something in common: a dislike of brutish machine timekeeping. However, I believe what we really dislike is industrial timekeeping as a whole, not just daylight savings time. The daylight savings time change is like a tiny semiannual glitch in the matrix of industrial timekeeping that draws our attention just enough to feel something is wrong but passes before we really focus the energy to investigate the true enormity of the problem.
The problem is industrial time – since the 18th century – and the solution is Time v3.